Some of Mr Erdogan’s core Islamist voter base also appeared to be dissatisfied with the president and the AKP, writing “Gaza” and “Free Palestine” on their paper ballots, rather than stamping “evet” or “yes” votes.
Mr Erdogan, who had capitalised on pro-Palestinian sentiments, has not officially cut diplomatic ties with Israel – a move that appears to have upset some supporters.
In Istanbul, Ekrem Imamoglu, the incumbent mayor, succeeded in his continued appeal to a secular base.
“Tonight, 16 million Istanbul citizens sent a message to both our rivals and the president,” Mr Imamoglu told his supporters on Sunday, as some in the crowd chanted for Mr Erdogan to resign.
“Those who do not understand the nation’s message will eventually lose,” he said.
Despite some calls for the Turkish president to step down, Mehmet Ucum, his chief adviser said that there would not be snap elections held before 2028, when Mr Erdogan’s current presidential term ends.
Mr Imamoglu, a businessman who entered politics in 2008, is considered a serious presidential challenger.
He remains, however, embroiled in various court cases that supporters believe are an attempt to throw up political obstacles.
In 2022, a Turkish judge sentenced Mr Imamoglu to two and a half years in prison and imposed a political ban; an appeals court has yet to rule on the case.
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